The Effects Of Deferred Imitation During The Sensorimotor...

Imitation and observational learning are important in aiding the attainment and portrayal of new behaviours, beginning as early as infancy (Meltzoff, 1993, p. 467). Deferred imitation and mental representations were concepts by developmental psychologist Jean Piaget in his theory of infant cognitive development. Deferred imitation refers to a child’s ability to imitate the actions that they have seen others perform, following a delay, (Slater, Lewis, Anzures Lee, 2011). Piaget proposed that the emergence of deferred imitation during the sensorimotor period, is a sign of mental representation, (Jones Herbert, 2009, para. 14). His proposal of the formation of this ability has been accredited by several studies that document the presence of deferred imitation in infants from as early as birth to 24 months of age and beyond (Barr, Dowden, Hayne, 1996; Heimann Meltzoff, 1996). A study by Heimann and Schaller (1985) used infants between 14-21 days old, (p.33). The mother was to ld to either protrude her tongue or open her mouth while the infant was engaged and observing during the exposure sessions, (p. 33). Two observers scored each infant on the number of times they opened their mouth or protruded their tongue, depending on the groups they were assigned to within the 60 second response period, (p.33). The results showed that the total number of tongue protrusions or mouth openings were highest when the behaviours were modelled to the infant, (p. 36). To reproduce theShow MoreRelatedUniversal Needs Of Infants And Toddlers1651 Words   |  7 Pagesneeds, which are important for the infant / toddler learning and development foundations. There are exploring the world, learning from observation, Infancy is one of the periods which has most exploring spirit in a person s life. The infant collects every fragment which he touches and assembles them into the big world in his heart during this time. 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After discussing these topics, this paper will describe how to assess RAD in a Joey, and his family, and how to engage Joey and his parents, Dave and Lisa in an intervention processRead MoreHeredity vs. Environment in Human Development Essay example2307 Words   |  10 Pagessurvive periods stressed: predisposition for learning NO/BOTH Bowlbys Ainsworths Attachment Theory CONTEXTUAL Development occurs through interaction between person 5 surroundings interlocking systems of influence Childs Sociocultural context impact on development NO/Organismic NO/Organismic Bronfenbrenners ecological Vygotskys Sociocultural Paul Baltes Identified 4 key principles of a life-span developmental approach:: Development is lifelong- Each period of theRead MoreDevelopmental Psychology14082 Words   |  57 Pagesto record the entire stream of behaviour. In these instances, a common approach is event sampling in which the observer records all instances of a particular behaviour during a specified time period. Another way to observe efficiently is time sampling. In this procedure, the researcher records whether certain behaviour occur during a sample of short intervals. Observations of the behaviour of children, and of the adults who are important in their lives can be made in two different ways. One approachRead MoreDevelopmental Psychology14091 Words   |  57 Pagesto record the entire stream of behaviour. In these instances, a common approach is event sampling in which the observer records all instances of a particular behaviour during a specified time period. Another way to observe efficiently is time sampling. In this procedure, the researcher records whether certain behaviour occur during a sample of short intervals. Observations of the behaviour of children, and of the adults who are important in their lives can be made in two different ways. One approach

Skinner Behavioral Analysis Summary - 972 Words

Skinner - Behavioral Analysis Summary Tessia Purvis Overview of Behavioral Analysis Skinners Behavioral Analysis focused mostly on observable behaviors and was considered radical in that it did not include hypothetical constructs such as ego and traits. He did not believe behavior was an act of free will but determined and scientifically observable. As an environmentalist he believe external stimuli had a larger impact on behavior than genetics. Conditioning According to our text Skinner recognized two forms of Conditioning. One is called classical and the other is operant. In classical conditioning a response is produced in relation to a specific stimulus, so the environment acts on the organism. In operant the organism performs a†¦show more content†¦(In this example the threat is the reinforcement.) In our family these types of behavior reinforces are referred to as â€Å"warm fuzzies† and â€Å"cold pricklys†, and while each of us tends to one in particular we also use both methods as necessary depending upon the situation. Punishment – is not the same as negative reinforcement in that it is the actual application of a negative stimulus. The Human Organism According to Skinner human behavior is shaped by three forces; Natural selection, cultural practices and the person’s history of reinforcement. (Feist, J. and Roberts pg 463) While personal behavior can be based on an individual’s cultural factors and their personal history of reinforcements, both positive and negative, natural selection plays its role in shaping our behaviors through the needs related to all of human survival. While inner states exist, such as love and fear they have a limit to observability. Skinner felt these states though unseen could still be scientifically studied, even though they are mostly subjective. They include: Self-Awareness, Drives, Emotions and Purpose and Intention. Skinner never discounted or denied complex behaviors such as higher thought processes cognition, reason or creativity, he just attributed the shaping of them to the three main forces. Complex behaviors include: Higher Mental Process, Creativity, Unconsciou s Behavior, Dreams, and Social behaviorShow MoreRelated The Relevance of Behavioral Psychology to Instructional Technology1503 Words   |  7 PagesThe Relevance of Behavioral Psychology to Instructional Technology Behavioral Psychology Defined John Watson wrote a paper in the Psychological Review in 1913 and defined behavioral psychology or behaviorism as †¦a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. 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When children know that they risk serious punishment by bringing firearms to school and bullying their fellow students, they are far more likely to remain on the straight and narrow, which makes for a much safer learning environment. Children

Quantitative Models For Sustainable Supply Chain Management - Samples

Question: Discuss about the Quantitative Models For Sustainable Supply Chain Management. Answer: Introduction The purpose of the study protruded from the need to critically examine, analyze, and evaluate the research findings of a journal article quantitative models for sustainable supply chain management: development and directionby Brandenburg et al, (2014). For the last two decades, the relevance of the influence of social aspects and environmental factors in the field of supply chain management has consistently increased due to its relevance/ contribution in a business. This leaves it as a necessity that requires thorough research to help in the establishment of models that can help in its effectiveness. Previously, the use of reverse logistics and formal modeling for closed loops in the supply chain management has been reviewed in prior to earlier research publications. From the definition of supply chain management, the process of organizing, sourcing, designing, production and distribution of products and services in the global market is an integral and central role player in businesses. Several attempts to restructure government and organizational policies with the aim of incorporating and attaining an efficient sustainability in the management and design of supply chain. The article specifies literature review into two categories, that is to say literature prior to 2008 and literature after 2008. The prior literature findings indicate that the use of green product and green process development was mainly used.it further indicates that the research emphasized the use of supply chain management in the field of environmental management while using a conceptual framework that was initially established by the earlier studies. It cited its application in the management of solid waste, water resources, vehicle routing among others. On the other hand, the later literature the researcher focused on both general and empirical research findings, whichcan as well be referred to as metric or quantitative research. Of the recent research, the study took an overview of 14 articles. In relation to the earlier finding, the review indicate that manufacturing or reverse logistics render a minimal contribution to the earlier research Sustainability From the initial review carried out, the researcher perceives sustainability as a key tool for appreciating social, economic, and environmental aspects associated with marketing and management. This means that the lack of a common language for defining or analyzing sustainability and the absence of some tools leads to a lack of a framework that may be crucial and applicable in project management. Sustainability is dominated by environmental and economic factors at the expense of social perspective and represents a major research gap in project management. Sustainability assessment requires tangible information of the main aspects there by providing guidance in decision-making process in marketing management. However, the measurement of sustainability principles remains in the early stages and many technical issues are not yet addressed and therefore the transformation of theory into management have positively contributed to the development of the sustainability process. According to Singh 2012, there is a high need for people, organizations, and companies to acquire models, tools, and Metrics to quantify and define sustainability in different forms of procedure. To progress in sustainability, the development of indicators must be quantified, measured, interpreted, and monitored carefully. However, research shows that there is a lack of systems for measuring performance towards sustainability in operational practices. According to this research, sustainability has currently been thought of mostly in institutional and strategically terms without considering the side of economical manufacturing activities. To measure the efficiency of operation, few indicators have been applied and focused on environmental side orienting towards product development. Research also demonstrates that the benefit of sustainability is not confined to the social and environmental concept. In our modern era, it is impossible to think of economic development without thinking of protection of the environment and benefits of the society. According to Silvius 2013, the relationship between sustainability and project management is getting interest from academics and professionals making the integration of sustainability into the management of projects. This brings the view that the relationship between project management and sustainability is still an emerging field of study thus when project management involves sustainability, it results into production of goods and services that are suitable to the reality of the stake holders. Sustainability of an enterprise will depend on the competent management as well as the ability to consider business plans and interest of stakeholders and the impacts on the environment. Journal By The journal was prepared by Marcus Brandenburg, Kannan Govindan, Joseph Sarkis, and Stefan Seuring. Explanation of the Keywords The study develops the insights regarding the sustainability management through the establishment of the effective supply chain process. The current competitiveness is one of the major factors to be concerned about for developing sustainable business. Environment and climate change is much significant in terms of developing the understanding the effects on the sustainable business process. The keyword thus refers to the effects created by climate change on developing the sound supply chain management process. Furthermore, the study develops the idea about the considerable societal problems, which depicts the environmental effects caused by the supply chain development. The closer look on the societal benefits and disadvantages would explain the study in a clarified manner. Another keyword is sustainability, which is much significant in this study. The business marketers concentrate on the unique and innovative ideas to develop the organisational functionalities. However, the main pur pose of developing such ideas is to ensure the long term sustainability of the firm. The study is also concentrating on describing the significance of effective supply chain management, which determines the survival aspects of the firms in current competitive scenario. The effectiveness of the supply chain management would create the positive impact on both the environment and the organisation. Identification of the problems The article, Quantitative Models for Sustainable Supply Chain Management provides the insights about the effectiveness of supply chain management to develop the sustainable business in a competitive scenario. However, it has been identified that while developing the effective supply chain process, the business marketers often face some of the considerable challenges. These problems are discussed further: Supply Chain Management According to Brandenburg et al. (2014), SCM is conceptualized as the management of the logical, physical, and financial flows for adding values and developing customer satisfaction. However, the new conceptualized definition is provided by De Brito and Van der Laan (2010), which depicts that SCM is involved with the green purchasing that has the linking with the centralized and decentralized decision-making process. It has been observed that the more developed and systematic procedures used in the supply chain management create the sustainable business parameter, which is quite beneficial for long run. For example, supply chain management requires the improved technological tools to ensure the better outcome. Many organizations face trouble in arranging resources to develop such effective technologies and this obligation can affect the entire procedures much recognizably. Logistic The logistic is an integral part of the supply chain process. Chkanikova (2012) described that the reverse logistic process helps in resolving the issues with societal issues. Opposing this statement, Danciu (2013) argued that the current upgraded techniques used in the logistic process affects the green supply chain management process. Therefore, it may create the problematic situation for the business marketers to retain the sustainable approach. For example, the lack of resources cannot establish the required inventory system for the logistic process, which can develop the remarkable green supply chain process. Therefore, it would be much challenging for the business marketers. Environment and Climate Change Climate change is other most recognizable challenges in supply chain process. Massaroni, Cozzolino and Wankowicz (2014) implied that the occurrence of the climate change can directly affect the core operational process. For example, the sudden changes in the climates can delay the delivery of the products and services that may lead to the customer dissatisfaction. Hence, it is quite a concerned area that is needed to be taken into consideration. Societal Problem The major societal problem in supply chain process is found in managing waste. For example, the emission of the wastages during the supply chain process can be the reason for environmental pollution. Therefore, it may affect the environment much considerably. Supporting such statement, Hasan (2013) commented that the emergence of societal issues may affect the sustainable development of the business. Hence, it is essential to develop more hands-on approach to mitigate this challenge related to the societal issues. Sustainability The sustainability issues are the widely elaborated concept that creates the impact on the business sustainability. Massaroni, Cozzolino and Wankowicz (2014) implied that the development of the appropriate technologies and the systematic work functionalities determines whether the supply chain process can create the sustainability or not. It is important to consider the demands of the external environment before developing the operational functionality. For example, while planning for the business operations, it is necessary to identify whether the production process creates any sustainable values or not. The development of the organized order of the supply chain process thus can contribute to the effective business sustainability. Brandenburg et al. (2014) argued that maintenance of the corporate social responsibility is also much significant in developing sustainability in a business society. Conclusion In business marketing, the article defines supply chain management as the execution of business supply activities to increase on the customers and competition in the marketplace. It is the role of the suppliers to develop supply chains that are economical and efficient. Supply chain covers different steps such as production, product development and information system to link the production, shipment and supply of the products. Through supply chain management, companies are able to quickly deliver products to their customers and to reduce on the costs. This is done by controlling investments, sales, and the distributions of the company. Basing on supply chain management, every product that comes to market results from organizations that makes up a supply chain. These organizations have found it important to rely on effective supply chains to compete in the global market and networked economy. Traditionally, supply chain management means the management of physical, logical and financia l of networks in organizational relationship. References Ahi, P. and Searcy, C., 2013. A comparative literature analysis of definitions for green and sustainable supply chain management.Journal of cleaner production,52, pp.329-341. Ashby, A., Leat, M. and Hudson-Smith, M., 2012. Making connections: a review of supply chain management and sustainability literature.Supply Chain Management: An International Journal,17(5), pp.497-516. Brandenburg, M., Govindan, K., Sarkis, J. and Seuring, S., 2014. Quantitative models for sustainable supply chain management: Developments and directions.European Journal of Operational Research, pp.299312. Brandenburg, M., Govindan, K., Sarkis, J. and Seuring, S., 2014. Quantitative models for sustainable supply chain management: Developments and directions.European Journal of Operational Research,233(2), pp.299-312. Chkanikova, O. 2012. Sustainable supply chain management: theoretical literature overview. International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics, Lund University. Danciu, V., 2013. The Contribution of Sustainable Marketing to Sustainable Development.The Bucharest University of Economic Studies, 8(2), pp.385-400. De Brito, M. and Van der Laan, E., 2010. Supply Chain Management and Sustainability: Procrastinating Integration in Mainstream Research.sustainability, 2, pp.859-870. Hasan, M., 2013. Sustainable Supply Chain Management Practices and Operational Performance.American Journal of Industrial and Business Management, 3, pp.42-48. Krause, D.R., Vachon, S. and Klassen, R.D., 2009. Special topic forum on sustainable supply chain management: introduction and reflections on the role of purchasing management.Journal of Supply Chain Management,45(4), pp.18-25. Linton, J.D., Klassen, R. and Jayaraman, V., 2007. Sustainable supply chains: An introduction.Journal of operations management,25(6), pp.1075-1082. Massaroni, E., Cozzolino, A. and Wankowicz, E., 2014. Sustainability in supply chain management - a literature review1.Italian journal of management, pp.331-355. Pagell, M. and Shevchenko, A., 2014. Why research in sustainable supply chain management should have no future.Journal of supply chain management,50(1), pp.44-55. Seuring, S. and Mller, M., 2008. Core issues in sustainable supply chain managementa Delphi study.Business strategy and the environment,17(8), pp.455-466. Seuring, S. and Mller, M., 2008. From a literature review to a conceptual framework for sustainable supply chain management.Journal of cleaner production,16(15), pp.1699-1710. Srivastava, S.K., 2007. Green supply?chain management: a state?of?the?art literature review.International journal of management reviews,9(1), pp.53-80. Wolf, J., 2011. Sustainable supply chain management integration: a qualitative analysis of the German manufacturing industry.Journal of Business Ethics,102(2), pp.221-235.

Violence And Pornography Essays - Pornography, Sex-positive Feminism

Violence and Pornography Pornography -- Sex or Subordination? In the late Seventies, America became shocked and outraged by the rape, mutilation, and murder of over a dozen young, beautiful girls. The man who committed these murders, Ted Bundy, was later apprehended and executed. During his detention in various penitentiaries, he was mentally probed and prodded by psychologist and psychoanalysts hoping to discover the root of his violent actions and sexual frustrations. Many theories arose in attempts to explain the motivational factors behind his murderous escapades. However, the strongest and most feasible of these theories came not from the psychologists, but from the man himself, ?as a teenager, my buddies and I would all sneak around and watch porn. As I grew older, I became more and more interested and involved in it, [pornography] became an obsession. I got so involved in it, I wanted to incorporate [porn] into my life, but I couldn't behave like that and maintain the success I had worked so hard for. I generated an alter-ego to fulfill my fantasies under-cover. Pornography was a means of unlocking the evil I had burried inside myself? (Leidholdt 47). Is it possible that pornography is acting as the key to unlocking the evil in more unstable minds? According to Edward Donnerstein, a leading researcher in the pornography field, ?the relationship between sexually violent images in the media and subsequent aggression and . . . callous attitudes towards women is much stonger statistically than the relationship between smoking and cancer? (Itzin 22). After considering the increase in rape and molestation, sexual harassment, and other sex crimes over the last few decades, and also the corresponding increase of business in the pornography industry, the link between violence and pornogrpahy needs considerable study and examination. Once the evidence you will encounter in this paper is evaluated and quantified, it will be hard not come away with the realization that habitual use of pornographic material promotes unrealistic and unattainable desires in men that can leac to violent behavior toward women. In order to properly discuss pornography, and be able to link it to violence, we must first come to a basic and agreeable understanding of what the word pornography means. The term pornogrpahy originates from two greek words, porne, which means harlot, and graphein, which means to write (Webster's 286). My belief is that the combination of the two words was originally meant to describe, in literature, the sexual escapades of women deemed to be whores. As time has passed, this definition of pornography has grown to include any and all obscene literature and pictures. At the present date, the term is basically a blanket which covers all types of material such as explicit literature, photography, films, and video tapes with varying degrees of sexual content. For Catherine Itzin's research purposes pornogrpahy has been divided into three categories: The sexually explicit and violent; the sexually explicit and nonviolent, but subordinating and dehumanizing; and the sexually explicit, nonviolent, and nonsubordinating that is based upon mutuality. The sexually explicit and violent is graphic, showing penetration and ejaculation. Also, it shows the violent act toward a woman. The second example shows the graphic sexual act and climax, but not a violent act. This example shows the woman being dressed is a costume or being ?talked down' to in order to reduce her to something not human; such as a body part or just something to have sex with, a body opening or an orifice. Not only does ?erotica' show the entire graphic sexual act, it also depicts an attraction between two people. Her research consistently shows that harmful effects are associated with the first two, but that the third ?erotica', is harmless (22). These three categories basically exist as tools of discerning content. Although sometimes they overlap without a true distinction, as in when the film is graphic in the sexual act and also in violence, but shows the act as being a mutual activity between the people participating. In my view, to further divide pornography, it is possible to break it down into even simpler categories: soft and hard core pornography. Hard core pornography is a combination of the sexually explicit and violent and the sexually explicit and nonviolent, but subordinating and dehumanizing categories, previously discussed. Soft core pornography is thought to be harmless and falls into the category known as ?erotica'; which is the category based on mutuality. In hard core pornogrpahy, commonly rated XXX, you can see graphic depiction's of violent sexual acts usually with a man or group of men, deriving sexual gratification from the Violence And Pornography Essays - Pornography, Sex-positive Feminism Violence and Pornography Pornography -- Sex or Subordination? In the late Seventies, America became shocked and outraged by the rape, mutilation, and murder of over a dozen young, beautiful girls. The man who committed these murders, Ted Bundy, was later apprehended and executed. During his detention in various penitentiaries, he was mentally probed and prodded by psychologist and psychoanalysts hoping to discover the root of his violent actions and sexual frustrations. Many theories arose in attempts to explain the motivational factors behind his murderous escapades. However, the strongest and most feasible of these theories came not from the psychologists, but from the man himself, ?as a teenager, my buddies and I would all sneak around and watch porn. As I grew older, I became more and more interested and involved in it, [pornography] became an obsession. I got so involved in it, I wanted to incorporate [porn] into my life, but I couldn't behave like that and maintain the success I had worked so hard for. I generated an alter-ego to fulfill my fantasies under-cover. Pornography was a means of unlocking the evil I had burried inside myself? (Leidholdt 47). Is it possible that pornography is acting as the key to unlocking the evil in more unstable minds? According to Edward Donnerstein, a leading researcher in the pornography field, ?the relationship between sexually violent images in the media and subsequent aggression and . . . callous attitudes towards women is much stonger statistically than the relationship between smoking and cancer? (Itzin 22). After considering the increase in rape and molestation, sexual harassment, and other sex crimes over the last few decades, and also the corresponding increase of business in the pornography industry, the link between violence and pornogrpahy needs considerable study and examination. Once the evidence you will encounter in this paper is evaluated and quantified, it will be hard not come away with the realization that habitual use of pornographic material promotes unrealistic and unattainable desires in men that can leac to violent behavior toward women. In order to properly discuss pornography, and be able to link it to violence, we must first come to a basic and agreeable understanding of what the word pornography means. The term pornogrpahy originates from two greek words, porne, which means harlot, and graphein, which means to write (Webster's 286). My belief is that the combination of the two words was originally meant to describe, in literature, the sexual escapades of women deemed to be whores. As time has passed, this definition of pornography has grown to include any and all obscene literature and pictures. At the present date, the term is basically a blanket which covers all types of material such as explicit literature, photography, films, and video tapes with varying degrees of sexual content. For Catherine Itzin's research purposes pornogrpahy has been divided into three categories: The sexually explicit and violent; the sexually explicit and nonviolent, but subordinating and dehumanizing; and the sexually explicit, nonviolent, and nonsubordinating that is based upon mutuality. The sexually explicit and violent is graphic, showing penetration and ejaculation. Also, it shows the violent act toward a woman. The second example shows the graphic sexual act and climax, but not a violent act. This example shows the woman being dressed is a costume or being ?talked down' to in order to reduce her to something not human; such as a body part or just something to have sex with, a body opening or an orifice. Not only does ?erotica' show the entire graphic sexual act, it also depicts an attraction between two people. Her research consistently shows that harmful effects are associated with the first two, but that the third ?erotica', is harmless (22). These three categories basically exist as tools of discerning content. Although sometimes they overlap without a true distinction, as in when the film is graphic in the sexual act and also in violence, but shows the act as being a mutual activity between the people participating. In my view, to further divide pornography, it is possible to break it down into even simpler categories: soft and hard core pornography. Hard core pornography is a combination of the sexually explicit and violent and the sexually explicit and nonviolent, but subordinating and dehumanizing categories, previously discussed. Soft core pornography is thought to be harmless and falls into the category known as ?erotica'; which is the category based on mutuality. In hard core pornogrpahy, commonly rated XXX, you can see graphic depiction's of violent sexual acts usually with a man or group of men, deriving sexual gratification from the

How Many Nanometers in a Meter

How Many Nanometers in a Meter SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you’re interested in studying a field such as biology or computer engineering, knowing how to convert nanometers to meters (or nm to m) will be a vital skillto have. In this guide, we'll go over exactly what a nanometer is and what it measures. We’ll then give you three methods you can use for converting nm to m. Finally, we’ll provide you with a chart that shows various conversions from nanometers to millimeters, centimeters, decimeters, and more. What Is a Nanometer? A Meter? Nanometers and meters are both units of measurement that are used to measure length. A meter (m) is the basic unit of length in the International System of Units, or what is typically known as the metric system. One meter is equivalent to approximately 3.28 feet in the Imperial system, which is used in the United States and a smattering of other countries. A nanometer (nm) is equal to one-billionth of a meter.Theprefix "nano" literally means one-billionth. Written out, one nanometer looks like 0.000000001 m (that’s nine zeros!). It can be a little long to write out fully, though, so another option is to use exponents. A calculator will most likely show you1e-9for one-billionth, meaning1 * 10-9. So if you’d rather write out one-billionth using exponents, you could do 1 * 10-9, or even just 10-9. To help you understand the relationship between nm and m, let’s look at an analogy provided by the National Nanotechnology Initiative: "If the diameter of a marble [were] one nanometer, then [the] diameter of the Earth would be about one meter." That’s a gigantic difference and goes to show just how much bigger one meter is compared to one nanometer! What Are Nanometers Used to Measure? One nanometer is so small, it’s invisible to the human eye.Nanometers are generally used to measure microscopic things, both man-made and natural, such as molecules, atoms, and the tiny components used in computer processors. Your fingernails grow about 1 nm each second. That’s around 86,400 nm each day- but that’s still such a small length that you wouldn’t even notice it! Still not understanding just how small a nanometer really is? Imagine a ruler. You probably have a decent grasp of how big a centimeter is. Remember that 10 millimeters fit into one centimeter, so millimeters are already pretty small. Now listen to this: there are one MILLION nanometers in just one millimeter! The following chart will give you a better idea of how many nanometers there are in various things you can (and cannot!) see with the naked eye in the world around you: Specimen Length in Nanometers Dust mite 200,000 nm Sheet of paper (thickness) 100,000 nm Human hair (thickness) 80,000-100,000 nm Red blood cell 7,000-8,000 nm Bacterium 2,500 nm Nanoparticle (diameter) 4 nm Human DNA (diameter) 2.5 nm Atom 0.1-0.2 nm 3 Methods for Converting Nanometers to Meters There are a few ways you can convert nm to m. We go over each of these below. Method 1: Set Up a Conversion Equation The first conversion method is to set up an equation. Recall that 1 m is equivalent to 1,000,000,000 nm. To use this nm-to-m method, you’ll want to write this as a fraction: $${1 \m}/{1,000,000,000 \nm}$$ Let’s say you were given a measurement of 12,358 nm. To convert this to meters, all you need to do is multiply the measurement in nm by the conversion factor (the fraction above). Here is what this would look like written out: $$12,358 \nm=12,358{1/1,000,000,000}$$ $$12,358 \nm=0.000012358 \m$$ If you wanted to convert a measurement from m to nm, simply flip the conversion factor upside down so that it looks like this: $${1,000,000,000 \nm}/{1 \m}$$ Because the denominator is 1, this fraction is the same as 1,000,000,000. Therefore, you canjust multiply your measurement in m by 1,000,000,000 to get its conversion in nm. Method 2: Move the Decimal Another method you can use for converting nm to m is moving the decimal over.Nanometers and meters are based on units of 10 (like the whole of the metric system), so converting between units is really about moving the decimal. Because 1,000,000,000 nm equals 1 m, converting from nanometers to metersconsists of simply moving the decimal point to the left nine places. Let’s look at an example. Say you have a dust mite that is205,449.13 nm in length. To convert this measurement to meters, all you have to do is move the decimal point to the left nine places: By doing this, you should get the following: $205,449.13 \nm=0.00020544913 \m$ If you have a whole number, such as 682 nm, the decimal point will be after the last number (think of it like 682.0 nm), so you’ll start from there before moving it to the left nine places to get your conversion, which in this case would be 0.000000682 m. Method 3: Use an Online Conversion Tool The final nm-to-m conversion method you can use is an online conversion tool. Many websites offer free conversion tools you can use to quickly and accurately convert a certain measurement from nanometers to meters. All you need to do is input the measurement in nm and you’ll be given the conversion in m instantly. Available conversion tools we recommend using include The Calculator Site, which offers a helpful reference chart, and FormulaConversion.com, which lets you see the conversions right as you add, subtract, and/or change numbers. You can use any online nm-to-m conversion calculator, just as long as it’s accurate. If you’re not sure whether the answer the tool gives you is correct or not, try one of the two methods above to double-check your answer. Can you figure out how many nm are in 20 km? How Many Nanometers Are in a Meter?In a Kilometer? It's definitely helpful toknow how to convert nm to m, but what about converting nanometers to centimeters? To micrometers? To kilometers? The following chart gives a brief overview of various conversions, all the way from nm to km: Measurement Conversion in Nanometers 1 kilometer (km) 1,000,000,000,000 nm(one trillion) 1 hectometer (hm) 100,000,000,000 nm(one hundred billion) 1 decameter/dekameter (dam/dkm) 10,000,000,000 nm(ten billion) 1 meter (m) 1,000,000,000 nm(one billion) 1 decimeter (dm) 100,000,000 nm(one hundred million) 1 centimeter (cm) 10,000,000 nm(ten million) 1 millimeter (mm) 1,000,000 nm(one million) 1 micrometer (ÃŽ ¼m/um) 1,000 nm(one thousand) 1 nanometer (nm) 1 nm What’s Next? Trying to study for SAT Math? Then take a look at our expert guide to the SAT Math section and learn how you can get a perfect score on it. Curious about how Celsius converts to Fahrenheit? Our in-depth guide walks you through the #1 trick to know so that you can quickly convert between these temperature units. How do you convert decimals to fractions? And what about cups to quarts? Read our guides to learn all the tips and tricks out there!

An Exercise in Ambiguity

An Exercise in Ambiguity An Exercise in Ambiguity An Exercise in Ambiguity By Maeve Maddox I noticed this headline in the list of breaking news on the Yahoo landing page: Â  Sotomayor wins over GOP backers after smooth hearings At first I read the verb wins as the main verb and over GOP backers as a prepositional phrase. Read that way, the meaning of the headline was that Sotomayor had defeated GOP backers in some kind of competition. But I knew that couldnt be right. For one thing, Sotomayor wasnt competing against anyone in the hearings. For another, one doesnt compete against ones backers. So then I decided that what I had in front of me was the phrasal verb win over, meaning persuade, gain ones support. That made a little more sense, but as far I could recall, Sotomayor went into the hearings without any GOP backers. I clicked on the confusing headline to read the story. I found my answer in the lead: WASHINGTON – Supreme Court nominee Sonia Sotomayor won her first public pledges of support from Senate Republicans and one prominent GOP opponent, after a smooth performance at her confirmation hearings that has placed her firmly on track to become the high courts first Latina and the first Democratic-named justice in 15 years. Finally, I understood what the headline meant. Sotomayor had acquired some backers from among the Republican senators. The biggest obstacle to understanding for me was the word backers used with the phrasal verb wins over. I could see how she might win backers or win over some Republicans, but not how she could win over backers. If someone is a backer he doesnt need to be won over by the person hes already backing. Not every reader would have boggled at this particular headline as I did. Nevertheless, writers need to be aware of the possibilities for ambiguity that exist with the use of phrasal verbs. Sometimes it is better to replace a phrasal verb with a less ambiguous single verb, especially in writing intended for an audience that includes non-native English speakers. For example, we can put out the cat and put out a light; take out a girl and take out an enemy. Alternatives exist for most phrasal verbs. For example: put the cat outside extinguish a light take a girl on a date kill an enemy You may not always be able to hit on a suitable alternative, but its something to consider when revising a manuscript for clarity. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:What is the Difference Between "These" and "Those"?When to Form a Plural with an Apostrophe5 Keys to Better Sentence Flow

The Meaning of Race in Western Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Meaning of Race in Western Society - Essay Example The south was dependent on cotton plantations and depended solely on agriculture and therefore required cheap labour in the cotton plantations. This prompted slavery in the region as a source of cheap labour. On the other hand, the north depended on industries and turned cotton into finished goods. Urbanization was also rampant due to growth of cities and immigration and did not advocate for slavery. This often brought about conflicts between the north and south prompting the civil war in 1861-1865 (Jones, 1996). The whites were considered a superior race compared to the others. Racial discrimination was therefore evident and continues to plague America in all aspects of life including social, political, economic and cultural areas. The American independence declared all humans as equal and has inalienable right to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness and the constitution defended these rights. On this basis, civil rights movements were formed to fight for the rights of the minorities especially segregation and racial discrimination. The movement was particularly powerful in the south where minorities were often mistreated especially due to their conservatism nature and existence of Ku Klux Klan who were resistant to change. This paper discusses and analyzes civil rights movements operations and the varying ideas about how social, political, economic and cultural change could be achieved in the United States. In order to understand the civil rights movements, it is essential to understand the circumstances surrounding the civil war as it formed the basis for the movements. The war had the worst casualties than all the other wars that had been fought in America including the world wars. According to McPherson (1990), America was experiencing rapid growth in population, territory size and economy as a whole.

Kite Runner of Khaled Hosseini Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Kite Runner of Khaled Hosseini - Essay Example Comparison between Amir and Hassan The comparison between Amir and Hassan shows that Amir is a jealous person as opposed to Hassan. This is because, whenever Amir sees his father loving Hassan more than him, he gets jealous. As a result, he seeks methods aimed at attracting his father’s affection by trying hard and winning the local kite-running tournament. To ensure that he remains alone with his in their home, he frames Hassan as a thief by planting some money and a watch under his mattress so that when his father finds out Hassan is a thief, he will force him out of the family. In addition to jealousy, Amir is cold and a coward. For instance, when Hassan takes long after going to look for the blue kite, he goes searching for him and when he finds him in the hands of Assef who bullies Hassan and sexually abuses him, he does not help him (36). Besides, he hides and watches helplessly but thinking if he does get the blue kite to his father, he will approve him. In the other en d, Hassan is a true successful kite runner. Hassan is also a brave boy and loving friend. For instance, when Assef tries to attack Amir, he steps forward to defend Amir simply because he is brave and a caring friend for he defends his closest friend Amir. Similarities between Amir and Hassan The novel portrays Amir and Hassan as closest friends despite Hassan being a Hazarajat and therefore not allowed to stay close to Amir traditionally. The novel gives a number of similarities between Amir and Hassan. For example, within the context of their close friendship just as portrayed in part of the novel, it is deducible that both Amir and Hassan are friendly (44). Hassan is a Hazarajat and their tradition does not approve of his friendship with Amir. On the other side, Hassan does many things to help Amir due to their friendship. He defends him from bullies and helps him win the local kite-running tournament (59). All this happens because they are both friendly. When Amir returns to Paki stan after Rahim Khan who is ailing calls him, he establishes something that portrays another similarity between him and Hassan. Khan tells Amir that, for all that time he was not aware but as of that time, he knows. Khan is certain that Ali was not the true father of Hassan; his real father was Baba, Amir’s father. On that note, Amir finds out that Hassan was his half brother and they both shared the same biological father. This shows that, apart from being closest friends, they are also brothers. It is therefore agreeable that Amir and Hassan have another thing in common which is, they share the same father (64). Furthermore, both Hassan and Amir have talents. The novel portrays Hassan as a talented kite runner while Amir has talent in locating where the kite will fall even without looking. Thus, their talents are also part of the similarities that they share. How do their differences ruin their relationship? Amir and Hassan relate as friends and share the same home. Howeve r, they are not relatives. Baba, Amir’s father is rich and Amir gets almost everything that he wants. Hassan on the other hand ails from a poor family and can only get what is necessary. Since Amir feels that his father does not love him as much as he loves Hassan, he resolves to do things that ruin his relationship with Hassan. For examp

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms Essay Example for Free

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms Essay In the 1940s, Ernst Mayr coined the term Biological Species Concept that was subsequently widely embraced by the scientific community. The definition stated that Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups. Certain mechanisms are in place to prevent species from interbreeding with others and these are referred to as reproductive isolating mechanisms, which are biological incompatibilities. There are many mechanisms acting on natural populations and these are broadly grouped into two categories namely prezygotic and postzygotic mechanisms. Prezygotic isolating mechanisms are those mechanisms that isolate species before fertilisation i.e. before a zygote is formed. They include geographical, ecological, temporal, ethological, mechanical, morphological and gametic isolation. These mechanisms lesson the possibility of gametes from different species coming into contact and hence forming a zygote. One prezygotic isolating mechanism is ecological isolation, also referred to as habitat isolation. Ecological isolation prevents different species that live in the same territory but different habitats from interbreeding. These species are referred to as sympatric species since they occur in the same territories. Individuals mate in their preferred habitat, and therefore do not meet individuals of other species with different ecological preferences. An example of ecological isolation occurs within the Rana genus. R. grylio, the pig frog and R. areolata, the gopher frog both occur around New Orleans, Louisiana. The exceptionally aquatic pig frog lives in deep ponds, lakes and marshes amongst surfacing vegetation and breeds in deep water so has no contact with the gopher frog which lives in burrows during the day, and in the swamp margins at night and breeds in shallow water. This way the possibility of interbreeding between the two species is eliminated. Temporal isolation, also known as seasonal isolation is a prezygotic mechanism that prevents interbreeding between species. Temporal isolation is the isolation of species by changing the time at which they release gametes.  A particularly strong example of temporal isolation occurs in three tropical orchid species of the genus Dendrobium. The species only flower for a single day, opening at dawn and withering by nightfall. The flowering of each species is in response to the same environmental stimuli, such as a sudden storm on a hot day, but the lag time between the occurrence of the stimulus and the flowering is eight, nine, and ten or eleven in the different species. Since they flower for a single day, inter-species fertilization is made impossible because when one species has flowered the others are either not yet mature or already withered. Other examples of temporal isolation in natural populations are not as pronounced such as in cases were species are isolated due to breeding during different seasons like Sciurus carolinensis, the gray squirrel which mates in July and August; and Sc. niger, the fox squirrel which breeds in May and June. Another prezygotic isolating mechanism is ethological isolation or behavioural isolation. This mechanism prevents species, mostly animals from interbreeding based on their different behavioural patterns. It affects animals that occur within the same territory and habitat but with different mating behaviours. In most animals, mates are chosen in a species-specific approach often after species-specific mating rituals of some form. Matings follow these rituals which can be ended if at least one of the mating parties decides that the process leading to the mating is not as expected. Ethological isolation can be strong reproductive isolating mechanism in animals also between closely related species. An effective example of ethological isolation occurs in certain frog species of the Hyla species. H. versicolor, the gray tree frog and the closely related H. femoralis, pine wood tree frog often breed in the same ponds. Both species are physically very similar but their male mating calls, which last about three seconds and sound the same to humans can be differentiated by the female tree frogs and thus insures species-specific mating. This is also the case when considering why dogs and wolves dont mate as frequently as expected because of their different behavioural patterns. Mechanical isolation is a mechanism that prevents copulation between different animal species because of incompatible shape and size of the  genitalia. This occurs in species are sympatric and live in a common habitat and have overlapping breeding seasons without any ethological isolating mechanisms. In plants, variation in flower structure can inhibit cross species pollination. In California, two sage species, namely Salvia mellifera and S. apiana exhibit this form of prezygotic isolation. Two- lipped S. mellifera has stamens and style in their upper lip, whereas S. apiana has long stamens and style and a specialized floral configuration. Small and medium sized bees that carry pollen on their backs pollinate the two-lipped flowers, and large carpenter and bumble bees that carry pollen on their wings and other body parts pollinate S. apiana. This mechanism thus ensures that pollen cannot be transferred between the species, as only the corresponding pollinators are able to transfer pollen to the style of each flower. Another prezygotic isolation mechanism is morphological isolation, which in some cases overlaps with mechanical isolation mechanisms. This isolating mechanism prevents mating due to differences in size and shape between species. Morphological isolation prevents the spread of genes between the oak toad, Bufo quercicus and the Gulf Coast toad, Bufo vallicpes due to the size variation between the two species. The female oak toad has a maximum length of approximately 3 centimetres whereas the smallest Gulf Coast males are about twice as long. This way the size differences between the spaces make copulation extremely unlikely as male oak toads are too small to grasp the female Gulf Coast toad and male Gulf Coast toads are large enough to, and generally do, eat the female oak toads. The last prezygotic isolating mechanism is gametic isolation also known as gametic mortality. Gametic isolation is the mechanism in which fertilization cannot occur between species generally due to chemical incompatibilities between their gametes. In animals that practice internal fertilization, sperm may not be able to survive in the females sperm receptacles. Some plant species, pollen grains of one species usually cannot germinate on the stigma of another species thus preventing fertilization between species. Since many aquatic animals disperse their ova and sperm into the water, gametesof different species do not have affinities for each other. This was  demonstrated between the sea urchins Stronglocentrotus purpuratus and S. franciscanus when after induction of simultaneous realease of eggs and sperm, all resultant fertilizations were between eggs and sperms of the same species. Postzygotic isolation mechanisms are those reproductive isolating mechanisms, which are effective after the union of gametes of different species i.e. after fertilisation. Postzygotic isolating mechanisms include hybrid inviability, hybrid sterility and hybrid breakdown. Postzygotic isolating mechanisms reduce the viability or fertility of hybrids or their progeny. These mechanisms come into play when hybridzygotes are formed either naturally or unnaturally. Hybrid inviability is the postzygotic isolating mechanism that occurs between fertilisation and birth. This mechanism prevents the full development of zygotes and thus leads to their subsequent death. An example in animals is the death of artificially created sheep-goat hybrid embryos in early developmental stages before birth. Hybrid inviability also occurs in plants, most commonly resulting in hybrid seeds either failing to germinate or dying shortly after germination. Hybrid sterility or hybrid infertility is a postzygotic reproductive isolating mechanism which affects hybrids that survive to adulthood. This mechanism creates sterile hybrids i.e. hybrids that cannot produce offspring. The most well known example is the case of the mule. When a horse and a donkey mate they are capable of producing offspring called mules. But mules are sterile, leaving them out of the gene pool thus maintaining species integrity. Hybrid breakdown is the last postzygotic isolating mechanism in place to maintain species differentiation. It occurs in cases of crossbreeding were hybrids of inter species matings are viable and fertile. Hybrid breakdown occurs commonly and results in the hybrids offspring or the F2 generation being unviable or significantly weaker and unable to contribute genes to a next generation. Certain cotton plants show this form of reproductive  isolation such as Gossypium barbadense, G. hirsutum and G. tomentosum which produce hybrids that seem viable and fertile, but their offspring die either as seeds, early during development or develop into weaker plants unable to compete and reproduce. Reproductive isolation combines traits that reduce gene flow, such as mate choice or fertilization barriers, with traits that select against genes that have flowed, such as hybrid incompatibility. Reproductive isolating mechanisms are ultimately mechanisms evolved in species to prevent interbreeding with other species and thus allow for scientists to differentiate between species using the biological species concept. Bibliography Futuyma, DJ. 1998. Evolutionary biology, 3rd ed., Sinauer Assoc. Inc., USA Griffiths, A.J.F., Miller, J.H. Suzuki, D.T., Lewontin, R.C. and Gelbart, W.M. 1999. Introduction to Genetic Analysis. W.H Freeman Co. New York. Hale, W. and Margham, J. 1988. Collins Dictionary of Biology. Collins, UK. Mayr, E. 1942 Systematics and the Origin of Species. Columbia University Press, New York, USA. Mayr, E. (1970) Populations, Species, and Evolution. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. Starr, C. and Taggart, R. (2001). Biology, The Unity and Diversity of Life, 9th ed. Brookes/ Cole, USA. www.abacus.gene.ucl.ac.uk/jim/Sp/isolmech.html www.library.thinkquest.org/ 19926/java/library/article/17a.ht

Test-Oriented or Ability-Oriented Essay -- China Education Chinese Arg

Test-Oriented or Ability-Oriented It is known to the world that China has thousands of years of culture, and education is always an important part of carrying on and developing culture in Chinese history. With the changing of time, the content of education and the method of education have changed a lot. And now in the twentieth century, what does education look like in China after thousands of years of development? There are some kinds of problems existing in the current Test-Oriented Education system, and therefore, another more scientific education system, Ability-Oriented, is needed. However, applying another kind of education system should take many factors into consideration, which involve an argument of doing it. This study will mainly explore the situation of Test-Oriented Education, and the reason why the argument exists. For students in China, the most important thing in their education process is taking tests. And the most important tests are the College Entrance Examinations which now include 9 subjects: Chinese, English, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Politics, History and Geography. The scores of this series of exams will decide what kind of university or college to which they can apply and in what major they will be. Other words, the scores can decide students’ futures. These exams also mean a lot to high schools. The percentage of students being admitted into college is the standard for judging whether a school is good or not. And therefore, students study for gaining a high score, and teachers teach for gaining a high number of students being admitted. When tests become the final target of the education, it is called Test-Oriented Education. Although it is true as it is said that Chinese stude... ... the number of people from the countries exceeded that from the cities for the first time. Shanxi News Web. December 1, 2004 http://www.daynews.com.cn/mag6/20040606/ca38007.htm WeiQuan LunTan. Facing teenagers who are at the edge of committing suicide, what should we do? December 1, 2004 http://www.ccc.org.cn/6.1/Weiquan/WeiquanqinZS.htm Xinhua Web News. Students are lacking sleep and becoming the most â€Å"poor† people. December 1, 2004 http://edu.beelink.com.cn/20041114/1723941.shtml Yan, Pin. 1292 survey answer sheets show the problems about educating minors. Xinhua Web News. December 1, 2004 http://news.xinhuanet.com/focus/2004-11/30/content_2264703.htm Zhejiang Online News. Wenzhou â€Å"reducing burden† survey: teachers have no confidence, students cannot play. December 1, 2004 http://www.zjol.com.cn/gb/node2/node138669/userobject15ai2229949.html

Importance of Partheon

One of the most well known places in Greece would be the Athenian Acropolis, where the Parthenon resides. Built in dedication to the Greek Goddess Athena, the current temple was constructed after the original temple was destroyed in the Second Persian Invasion in 480 B. C. The Parthenon is a most prominent figure in Classical Greek history, designed by Callicrates and Ictinus with the supervision of Phidias over the order of Pericles to show the wealth and the extravagance the Athenian power was capable of. Though in restoration, its value becomes clear ooking at its sculptures and realizing the extensive history it holds.Being over 2000 years old, the history of the temple is astronomical. Just by looking at it, the affects of an ancient battle and rule are clear. Construction began in 447 B. C. , and ended in 438 B. C. The Parthenon was purely a temple to Athena, up till the 4th century. The building held many treasures, the most magnificent being a statue of Athena in full armor h olding Nike, Goddess of Victory, made purely of ivory and gold. This statue was lost and eventually destroyed in the 5th century, Athens now eing a province of the Roman Empire. In the 5th century, the building was turned into a Christian church.It remained this way for around 250 years, the actual structure remaining intact, but with most sculptures of the Greek Gods destroyed. Then it was the Ottomans' who took control, and turned the temple into a mosque. Under their control, it was maintained, until the 17th century. 1678 was when the Parthenon took a direct shot from mortar fire from the Venetians, and since the building was being used as a store for gunpowder, a huge explosion occurred, leaving most of the destruction visible today. The Venetians soon took control and took whatever they could from the structure, and wrecking the rest, leaving it nearly empty.Whatever was left was then taken by the British in 1801. We can only tell what the sculptures and depictions look like t oday thanks to a Flemish artist, Jacques Carrey who made drawings in 1674. Restoration for the broken and worn building started in 1975. While the Parthenon will never look like it did centuries ago, we are now doing our best to restore it. Not only can you see the outcomes of historical events on the Parthenon, but mportant events and figures of Greek mythology are a part of, and used to be what the Parthenon was for.Just about all of the pieces involving their mythology are lost, but the ones we know of give us more knowledge on the subject. From the art left by Jacques Carry, we see the birth of Athena, which whom the temple was built for, on the East Pediment. The setting is dawn, as we see horses at the South end rising up Helios, and horses at the north end tired and fatigued. We can picture the main gods around Zeus, with Hephaestus and Hera near. Hephaestus was the one to strike Zeus's head, splitting it, after complaining of headache, giving forth to Athena in full armor.Th en there's the West Pediment, showing the aftermath of the fight between Athena and Poseidon over Attica, the region of Athens. Hermes and Nike are on the side with Athena, while Iris and Aphrodite are on the side with Poseidon. Both are moving away from the center of the pediment where Zeus threw down a thunderbolt, pediments tell of major events in mythology evolving Athena. The Parthenon has survived through time, and it tells quite a tale on Ancient Greece. It has been part of major events in history evolving Greece, and shows us important events in mythology.When we look at what the structure holds and gives to us, it's importance becomes clear. Not only is a marvel to look at, but shows us what Athens had been capable on. It has survived, but not without wounds, though steps are being taken to finally get the temple to what it used to be over 2,000 years ago. Short Essay Ancient Greece, architecture wise, is most well-known for its astounding temples. Having an important role in their religion, they were most wide-spread. The Parthenon is one of the best well-known temples, built for the Goddess Athena.Temples such as the Parthenon were very common, held an important spot in Ancient Greece, and is simply an amazing work of art. From the details of the columns to the frieze, the Parthenon was, and still is a testament to the beauty of Ancient Greek architecture. Located in Athens, the Parthenon stands on top of The Acropolis. There are actually many acropolises, but the one holding the Parthenon has its special title for its significance. There are many temples dedicated to gods, such as the Temple of Aphaea, the Temple of Hephaestus, and the Temple of Zeus.Temples are what Greek architecture is best known for, so it should be no surprise that they were fairly common. They were used as a place of sanctuary and of religious purposes. The Parthenon had its place as being built for Athena, for Athens success during that time. Not only did they serve a religi ous purpose, but a way to show power. No ordinary city would build such a work of art, you needed money and power. It also did show how artsy and amazing artists some Greeks were, you could look at the olumns and see very fine details, from the drawings you can see the realistic look of the statues placed inside, and outside the building.The fact that these very lifelike sculptures were crafted and moved without the machinery we have today is unbelievable. From the pediments, you see important bits of mythology play out before you, and from the ruins you can see the affects of time and destruction. No other work of art can hold as much history as the Parthenon has, it's been through the time of the Ancient Greece to the 21st century, all the way gathering scars from new rule and battles. I think the whole building itself is astonishing, but also very informal.While the building currently is nothing compared to what it looked like when finished long ago, knowing it is being restored lets us know this magnificent work of art has not been forgotten. The Parthenon holds a spot in Greek history, and serves its purpose in their ancient religion. While temples like it are common, none are as well known, or hold as much of a historical significance. It's a beautiful structure to behold, mostly when it is completely rebuilt. It's overall a stunning building, very fitting of a Goddesses place of worship.

Fasting Feasting

INGESTION, DIGESTION AND REVULSION OF FOOD AND CULTURE IN ANITA DESAI'S FASTING, FEASTING T. RAVICHANDRAN* ABSTRACT This article attempts a cultural study offood and eating habits in Anita Desai's Booker Prize short-listed novel, Fasting, Feasting. It shows how the ingestion offood affects acculturation process both in India and America in a multicultural context. Considering Foucault's view that discourse is involved in the exertion of power, some of the discourses from the novel are scrutinised to reveal an oppressive power structure. Interestingly enough, the power structure of the novel revolves around a gastronomical centre; and parents through repressive familial norms exert power. The linguistic strategies, such as repetition and interruption, used to assert power are analysed by examining appropriate instances from the novel. Further, it shows how the novelist, through a transcultural bundle of representative characters as MamaPapa, Uma, Arun, the Pattons, Melanie, and Rod, assesses the cross-cultural culinary habits, divergences, and subversions involved. However, it concludes with the observation that taking the novel as a dichotomous study of two cultures, the one Indian, on account of its spiritual dimension representing ‘fasting', and the other, American due to its plenty signifying ‘feasting,' would result in a myopic reading. Whereas, the real charm of the novel lies in the flux shown between fasting and feasting – a digesting of the best of both the cultures. † †¦ he very essence of Indian culture is that we possess a mixed tradition, a melange of elements as disparate as ancient Mughal and contemporary Cocacola American† (Salman Rushdie) â€Å"From food, from food creatures, all creatures come to be. Gorging, disgorging, being come to be. † (Taittriya Upanishad) In the Indian cultural scenario, there has been a great outcry about the safeguarding and perpetuation of ‘ the Indianness. This implies, apart from * Dr. T. Ravichandran is a Assistant Professor in English, Department o f Humanities & Social Sciences, lIT Kanpur, India. LUCKNOW JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES: VOL. 1, NO. 1, JAN-JUN 2004 Downloaded From IP – 109. 161. 128. 204 on dated 23-Jan-2012 Members Copy, Not for Commercial Sale www. IndianJournals. com 22 T. Ravichandran Downloaded From IP – 109. 161. 128. 204 on dated 23-Jan-2012 Members Copy, Not for Commercial Sale ational identity, a culture characteristic of the country and its inhabitants in terms of originality, purity, sanctity, and exclusivity. However, in a decolonised land that lost much of its' originality' and'exclusivity' in cultural conflicts, negotiations and transculturation processes besides gulping down some novelty from the colonisers and other foreign migrants, debating on a monistic culture is inappropriate. Despite desperate endeavours to maintain a unilateral cultural fa

One Stair Up” by Campbell Nairne Essays

One Stair Up† by Campbell Nairne Essays One Stair Up† by Campbell Nairne Paper One Stair Up† by Campbell Nairne Paper Essay A â€Å"One stair up† by Campbell Nairne The fragment describes how two youngsters, representatives of the working class, Rosa and Andrew, went to the cinema. We see them in the hall of the cinema, after that observe them in the showing room. There is relatively little action in this story. The author’s attention is mainly focused on the details, so that we could see, smell and feel everything that surrounds the main characters. The text can be described as partially narrative and partially descriptive. The exposition is rather long. The author’s aim is to plunge us into the atmosphere of the luxurious salon: we can even hear the â€Å"soft whirring of fans† and â€Å"a cup grate on a saucer†, feel the â€Å"hot darkness† and draw a realistic image of the showing room. The complication begins with the Rosa’s question â€Å"This a comedy? † Now our attention is fully devoted to the leading characters, depicted skillfully by the author. Campbell Nairne reveals the nature of his characters through actions, details, dialogues, and, mostly, through showing their thoughts. He uses interior monologues to build up the thought patterns of both the main characters. The tension grows as we â€Å"hear† what Rosa thinks of Andrew, because her thoughts come in strong contradiction to his ones. The culmination takes place when Andrew breaks out, â€Å"forgetful in his excitement†. Full of delight, he wants to share his impressions with Rosa, but meets only cold misunderstanding. He starts making excuses to her, looking abject and miserable. The denouement lies in the sharp answer of Rosa. The elements of the plot are ordered chronologically, the story ends on the sour note, but the end of the story is not clear-cut and conclusive. It gives the reader much room for suggestion, forces himher to fancy a possible reaction of the young man and the further development of the relationships between Rosa and Andrew. The plot is of minor importance in this story, if we compare it with the work of mind, feelings and emotions. We pay attention to what the characters think rather than to what they do. The author speaks first in his own voice and presents events in the third person singular, but there are moments when we realize that the author’s words are substituted by interior monologues of the youngsters. Nairne uses such a device to make his story a remarkable insight into human character. What is also characteristic of the story is that we cannot fully trust the narrator’s judgment, as he sometimes speaks with irony. A vivid example of it is the description of the forthcoming attraction â€Å"Mothers of Broadway†. The author mixes the quotations from an advertisement with his own remarks, which are even more swelling and exaggerative than the advertisement itself. He says â€Å"The film seemed to have smashed all records†, and we have to doubt deeply, whether he is speaking frankly. Next to this pompous review of the film Andrew’s comment follows: â€Å"Not much good, I expect†. Here we can observe a complete change in the point of view, and, accordingly, in the atmosphere. The mask seems to have been removed, and the emphasis in the episode turns great. Now let us examine the characters in details. Except for the main ones, Andrew and Rosa, we also meet â€Å"a trim girl in a chocolate uniform with blue pipings’, which ‘silently emerged, glanced at the tickets and admitted them†. The author pays attention only to her appearance and actions. On the contrary, we find nothing about the look of the main characters. And it’s not by chance: in this particular fragment their look has no significance. We explore only their inner world, knowing nothing about the outer, and it doesn’t prevent the characters from being round and full-blooded. They are fully believable, and as in real life, sometimes act inconsistently. In the best way it can be seen in the ending of the story, when Rosa’s retort â€Å"was uttered before she had command of it†. Another example concerns Andrew: he promised himself he would keep silent during the film, because Rosa had forbidden him to talk to her in a cinema. After that he broke the promise and it led to their tiff. The two heroes are faced with the problem of misunderstanding; moreover, an inner conflict, associated with Rose’s inner world, domineers from the very beginning of the story. â€Å"It pleased her to be seen in the dress circle, even with Andrew†. The detachment â€Å"even with Andrew† shows us that she doesn’t enjoy his company. Finally, her attitude to him is voiced in her thoughts: she supposed him to be stupid, just â€Å"a big hulking kid† and looked at him with contempt. Her irritation grew and the inner conflict turned into an external one. The roots of the conflict between the characters lie in their different attitude to things, different tempers and motivations, and particularly, in their attitude to cinema. Rosa’s attitude is much more serious than that of Andrew. For him it was just a sort of fun. He was going to â€Å"enjoy himselfâ€Å", and nothing more. But for Rosa it was a way to go one stair up in the world, may be even the means of self-development. Moreover, it was not by chance that she â€Å"surveyed the dim amphitheatre in the hope of recognizing some of her acquaintances†. She wanted to be seen in the dress circle and to keep the track of events. The title of the story is a suggestive one. It helps us to single out the main idea of the story: some people are not content to live in obscurity, and their aim is to go one stair up in the world by any means. Now let us see what helps this story to affect our feelings so deeply†¦ In the given fragment the author uses a wide range of stylistic devices. Here are examples of epithets (â€Å"voluptuous (stillness)†, â€Å"rapid-fire (drama)†, â€Å"soft (whirring)†, â€Å"hot (darkness)†), metaphors (â€Å"a shower of stars†, â€Å"a shaft of white light†), metonymy â€Å"young bloods†, simile (â€Å"a carpet that yielded like springing turf†). He also exploits ellipsis â€Å"This a comedy? †, â€Å"You see all right? † to imitate the colloquial language and to show the low education level of the speakers. To render the peculiarities of the thought stream, he uses simple syntactical constructions, many one-member nominative sentences (â€Å"Custards all over the place†, â€Å"Oh, yes, a stick of dynamite. ), rhetorical questions (â€Å"Where was it going to put that? †), exclamatory sentences (â€Å"Oh, this was good! †). Personification is used throughout the text (â€Å"pot-plants and palms leapt up†). The extract I thought - it was q uite funny, you know - I mean, people laughed. I wasnt the only one. But if you dont like it - is especially remarkable. It sounds unconnected, the same idea is repeated twice (â€Å"I thought †¦ I mean†). The speech is interrupted: hesitation pauses are shown with the help of the dashes. Evidently, poor Andrew had a lack of words. Moreover, aposiopesis is used. All these expressive means show us how great was the extent of the boy’s confusion, and unwillingly the reader’s heart fills with sympathy for him. No doubt, he author has a fine and remarkable style, everything seems to reflect the feelings of the heroes, and as a result, the events emerge in our mind in the most realistic way. The reader is immersed deeply into the life of those two youngsters: we see, hear and feel the same as they do. We get access to their thoughts and judgments, we can easily put ourselves into their shoes. And we realize that there are so many Rosas and Andrews among us†¦

The Complete IB Biology Syllabus SL and HL

The Complete IB Biology Syllabus SL and HL SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Oh, IB Biology. I took IB Biology SL back in my high school days. If you are looking at this syllabus, you're likely interested in taking the course or are currently enrolled in the course. In this article, I will go over the topics covered in IB Biology Standard Level and IB Biology Higher Level, as well as the number of hours dedicated to each topic along with what the IB expects you to understand for each topic. IB Biology SL and HL Core Both IB Biology SL and HL consist of the same core requirements (95 hours). Both classes cover the same six topics in the order listed below with the same subtopics listed below: Topic 1: Cell Biology- 15 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Introduction to cells 1.1 According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of cells. Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all functions of life in that cell. Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size. Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the interaction of their cellular components. Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multicellular organisms. Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in a cell’s genome. The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses. Ultrastructure of cells 1.2 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalization. Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure. Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes. Membrane structure 1.3 Phospholipids form bilayers in water due to the amphipathic properties of phospholipid molecules. Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of structure, position in the membrane and function. Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes. Membrane transport 1.4 Particles move across membranes by simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and active transport. The fluidity of membranes allows materials to be taken into cells by endocytosis or released by exocytosis. Vesicles move materials within cells. The origin of cells 1.5 Cells can only be formed by division of pre-existing cells. The first cells must have arisen from non-living material. The origin of eukaryotic cells can be explained by the endosymbiotic theory. Cell division 1.6 Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically identical daughter nuclei. Chromosomes condense by supercoiling during mitosis. Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plant and animal cells. Interphase is a very active phase of the cell cycle with many processes occurring in the nucleus and cytoplasm. Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle. Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are involved in the development of primary and secondary tumours. Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic 2: Molecular Biology- 21 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Molecules to metabolism 2.1 Molecular biology explains living processes in terms of the chemical substances involved. Carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds allowing a diversity of stable compounds to exist. Life is based on carbon compounds including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Metabolism is the web of all the enzyme-catalysed reactions in a cell or organism. Anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules including the formation of macromolecules from monomers by condensation reactions. Catabolism is the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules including the hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers. Water 2.2 Water molecules are polar and hydrogen bonds form between them. Hydrogen bonding and dipolarity explain the cohesive, adhesive, thermal and solvent properties of water. Substances can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic. Carbohydrates and lipids 2.3 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers. Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers. Triglycerides are formed by condensation from three fatty acids and one glycerol. Proteins 2.4 Amino acids are linked together by condensation to form polypeptides. There are 20 different amino acids in polypeptides synthesized on ribosomes. Amino acids can be linked together in any sequence giving a huge range of possible polypeptides. The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is coded for by genes. A protein may consist of a single polypeptide or more than one polypeptide linked together. The amino acid sequence determines the three-dimensional conformation of a protein. Living organisms synthesize many different proteins with a wide range of functions. Every individual has a unique proteome. Enzymes 2.5 Enzymes have an active site to which specific substrates bind. Enzyme catalysis involves molecular motion and the collision of substrates with the active site. Temperature, pH and substrate concentration affect the rate of activity of enzymes. Enzymes can be denatured. Immobilized enzymes are widely used in industry. Structure of DNA and RNA 2.6 The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides. DNA differs from RNA in the number of strands present, the base composition and the type of pentose. DNA is a double helix made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs. DNA replication, transcription and translation 2.7 The replication of DNA is semi-conservative and depends on complementary base pairing. Helicase unwinds the double helix and separates the two strands by breaking hydrogen bonds. DNA polymerase links nucleotides together to form a new strand, using the pre-existing strand as a template. Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA copied from the DNA base sequences by RNA polymerase. Translation is the synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes. The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is determined by mRNA according to the genetic code. Codons of three bases on mRNA correspond to one amino acid in a polypeptide. Translation depends on complementary base pairing between codons on mRNA and anticodons on tRNA. Cell respiration 2.8 Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP. ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell. Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose. Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose. Photosynthesis 2.9 Photosynthesis is the production of carbon compounds in cells using light energy. Visible light has a range of wavelengths with violet the shortest wavelength and red the longest. Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light most effectively and reflects green light more than other colours. Oxygen is produced in photosynthesis from the photolysis of water. Energy is needed to produce carbohydrates and other carbon compounds from carbon dioxide. Temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration are possible limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis. Topic 3: Genetics- 15 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Genes 3.1 A gene is a heritable factor that consists of a length of DNA and influences a specific characteristic. A gene occupies a specific position on a chromosome. The various specific forms of a gene are alleles. Alleles differ from each other by one or only a few bases. New alleles are formed by mutation. The genome is the whole of the genetic information of an organism. The entire base sequence of human genes was sequenced in the Human Genome Project. Chromosomes 3.2 Prokaryotes have one chromosome consisting of a circular DNA molecule. Some prokaryotes also have plasmids but eukaryotes do not. Eukaryote chromosomes are linear DNA molecules associated with histone proteins. In a eukaryote species there are different chromosomes that carry different genes. Homologous chromosomes carry the same sequence of genes but not necessarily the same alleles of those genes. Diploid nuclei have pairs of homologous chromosomes. Haploid nuclei have one chromosome of each pair. The number of chromosomes is a characteristic feature of members of a species. A karyogram shows the chromosomes of an organism in homologous pairs of decreasing length. Sex is determined by sex chromosomes and autosomes are chromosomes that do not determine sex. Meiosis 3.3 One diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei. The halving of the chromosome number allows a sexual life cycle with fusion of gametes. DNA is replicated before meiosis so that all chromosomes consist of two sister chromatids. The early stages of meiosis involve pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over followed by condensation. Orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes prior to separation is random. Separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in the first division of meiosis halves the chromosome number. Crossing over and random orientation promotes genetic variation. Fusion of gametes from different parents promotes genetic variation. Inheritance 3.4 Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance with experiments in which large numbers of pea plants were crossed. Gametes are haploid so contain only one allele of each gene. The two alleles of each gene separate into different haploid daughter nuclei during meiosis. Fusion of gametes results in diploid zygotes with two alleles of each gene that may be the same allele or different alleles. Dominant alleles mask the effects of recessive alleles but co-dominant alleles have joint effects. Many genetic diseases in humans are due to recessive alleles of autosomal genes, although some genetic diseases are due to dominant or co-dominant alleles. Some genetic diseases are sex-linked. The pattern of inheritance is different with sex-linked genes due to their location on sex chromosomes. Many genetic diseases have been identified in humans but most are very rare. Radiation and mutagenic chemicals increase the mutation rate and can cause genetic diseases and cancer. Genetic modification and biotechnology 3.5 Gel electrophoresis is used to separate proteins or fragments of DNA according to size. PCR can be used to amplify small amounts of DNA. DNA profiling involves comparison of DNA. Genetic modification is carried out by gene transfer between species. Clones are groups of genetically identical organisms, derived from a single original parent cell. Many plant species and some animal species have natural methods of cloning. Animals can be cloned at the embryo stage by breaking up the embryo into more than one group of cells. Methods have been developed for cloning adult animals using differentiated cells. Topic 4: Ecology- 12 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Species, communities and ecosystems 4.1 Species are groups of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Members of a species may be reproductively isolated in separate populations. Species have either an autotrophic or heterotrophic method of nutrition (a few species have both methods). Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by ingestion. Detritivores are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from detritus by internal digestion. Saprotrophs are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from dead organisms by external digestion. A community is formed by populations of different species living together and interacting with each other. A community forms an ecosystem by its interactions with the abiotic environment. Autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from the abiotic environment. The supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by nutrient cycling. Ecosystems have the potential to be sustainable over long periods of time. Energy flow 4.2 Most ecosystems rely on a supply of energy from sunlight. Light energy is converted to chemical energy in carbon compounds by photosynthesis. Chemical energy in carbon compounds flows through food chains by means of feeding. Energy released from carbon compounds by respiration is used in living organisms and converted to heat. Living organisms cannot convert heat to other forms of energy. Heat is lost from ecosystems. Energy losses between trophic levels restrict the length of food chains and the biomass of higher trophic levels. Carbon cycling 4.3 Autotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds. In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs. Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or the atmosphere. Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground. Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere. Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils. Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in porous rocks. Carbon dioxide is produced by the combustion of biomass and fossilized organic matter. Animals such as reef-building corals and mollusca have hard parts that are composed of calcium carbonate and can become fossilized in limestone. Climate change 4.4 Carbon dioxide and water vapour are the most significant greenhouse gases. Other gases including methane and nitrogen oxides have less impact. The impact of a gas depends on its ability to absorb long wave radiation as well as on its concentration in the atmosphere. The warmed Earth emits longer wavelength radiation (heat). Longer wave radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases that retain the heat in the atmosphere. Global temperatures and climate patterns are influenced by concentrations of greenhouse gases. There is a correlation between rising atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide since the start of the industrial revolution 200 years ago and average global temperatures. Recent increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide are largely due to increases in the combustion of fossilized organic matter. Topic 5: Evolution and Biodiversity- 12 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Evidence for evolution 5.1 Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species change. The fossil record provides evidence for evolution. Selective breeding of domesticated animals shows that artificial selection can cause evolution. Evolution of homologous structures by adaptive radiation explains similarities in structure when there are differences in function. Populations of a species can gradually diverge into separate species by evolution. Continuous variation across the geographical range of related populations matches the concept of gradual divergence. Natural selection 5.2 Natural selection can only occur if there is variation among members of the same species. Mutation, meiosis and sexual reproduction cause variation between individuals in a species. Adaptations are characteristics that make an individual suited to its environment and way of life. Species tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support. Individuals that are better adapted tend to survive and produce more offspring while the less well adapted tend to die or produce fewer offspring. Individuals that reproduce pass on characteristics to their offspring. Natural selection increases the frequency of characteristics that make individuals better adapted and decreases the frequency of other characteristics leading to changes within the species. Classification of biodiversity 5.3 The binomial system of names for species is universal among biologists and has been agreed and developed at a series of congresses. When species are discovered they are given scientific names using the binomial system. Taxonomists classify species using a hierarchy of taxa. All organisms are classified into three domains. The principal taxa for classifying eukaryotes are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. In a natural classification, the genus and accompanying higher taxa consist of all the species that have evolved from one common ancestral species. Taxonomists sometimes reclassify groups of species when new evidence shows that a previous taxon contains species that have evolved from different ancestral species. Natural classifications help in identification of species and allow the prediction of characteristics shared by species within a group. Cladistics 5.4 A clade is a group of organisms that have evolved from a common ancestor. Evidence for which species are part of a clade can be obtained from the base sequences of a gene or the corresponding amino acid sequence of a protein. Sequence differences accumulate gradually so there is a positive correlation between the number of differences between two species and the time since they diverged from a common ancestor. Traits can be analogous or homologous. Cladograms are tree diagrams that show the most probable sequence of divergence in clades. Evidence from cladistics has shown that classifications of some groups based on structure did not correspond with the evolutionary origins of a group or species. Topic 6: Human Physiology- 20 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Digestion and absorption 6.1 The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the small intestine mixes the food with enzymes and moves it along the gut. The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small intestine. Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers in the small intestine. Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is carried out. Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral ions and vitamins. Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb different nutrients. The blood system 6.2 Arteries convey blood at high pressure from the ventricles to the tissues of the body. Arteries have muscle cells and elastic fibres in their walls. The muscle and elastic fibres assist in maintaining blood pressure between pump cycles. Blood flows through tissues in capillaries. Capillaries have permeable walls that allow exchange of materials between cells in the tissue and the blood in the capillary. Veins collect blood at low pressure from the tissues of the body and return it to the atria of the heart. Valves in veins and the heart ensure circulation of blood by preventing backflow. There is a separate circulation for the lungs. The heart beat is initiated by a group of specialized muscle cells in the right atrium called the sinoatrial node. The sinoatrial node acts as a pacemaker. The sinoatrial node sends out an electrical signal that stimulates contraction as it is propagated through the walls of the atria and then the walls of the ventricles. The heart rate can be increased or decreased by impulses brought to the heart through two nerves from the medulla of the brain. Epinephrine increases the heart rate to prepare for vigorous physical activity. Defense against infectious disease 6.3 The skin and mucous membranes form a primary defense against pathogens that cause infectious disease. Cuts in the skin are sealed by blood clotting. Clotting factors are released from platelets. The cascade results in the rapid conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin by thrombin. Ingestion of pathogens by phagocytic white blood cells gives non-specific immunity to diseases. Production of antibodies by lymphocytes in response to particular pathogens gives specific immunity. Antibiotics block processes that occur in prokaryotic cells but not in eukaryotic cells. Viruses lack a metabolism and cannot therefore be treated with antibiotics. Some strains of bacteria have evolved with genes that confer resistance to antibiotics and some strains of bacteria have multiple resistance. Gas exchange 6.4 Ventilation maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air in alveoli and blood flowing in adjacent capillaries. Type I pneumocytes are extremely thin alveolar cells that are adapted to carry out gas exchange. Type II pneumocytes secrete a solution containing surfactant that creates a moist surface inside the alveoli to prevent the sides of the alveolus adhering to each other by reducing surface tension. Air is carried to the lungs in the trachea and bronchi and then to the alveoli in bronchioles. Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the thorax that force air in and out of the lungs to ventilate them. Different muscles are required for inspiration and expiration because muscles only do work when they contract. Neurons and synapses 6.5 Neurons transmit electrical impulses. The myelination of nerve fibres allows for saltatory conduction. Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions across their membranes to generate a resting potential. An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron. Nerve impulses are action potentials propagated along the axons of neurons. Propagation of nerve impulses is the result of local currents that cause each successive part of the axon to reach the threshold potential. Synapses are junctions between neurons and between neurons and receptor or effector cells. When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they release a neurotransmitter into the synapse. A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold potential is reached. Hormones, homeostasis and reproduction 6.6 Insulin and glucagon are secreted by ÃŽ ² and ÃŽ ± cells of the pancreas respectively to control blood glucose concentration. Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate the metabolic rate and help control body temperature. Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and acts on the hypothalamus of the brain to inhibit appetite. Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland to control circadian rhythms. A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as testes and secrete testosterone. Testosterone causes pre-natal development of male genitalia and both sperm production and development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty. Estrogen and progesterone cause pre-natal development of female reproductive organs and female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty. The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and pituitary hormones. Additional Higher Level Topics Only students taking IB Biology HL cover these topics. They consist of 60 hours of study. Topic 7: Nucleic Acids- 9 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand DNA structure and replication (HL ONLY) 7.1 Nucleosomes help to supercoil the DNA. DNA structure suggested a mechanism for DNA replication. DNA polymerases can only add nucleotides to the 3’ end of a primer. DNA replication is continuous on the leading strand and discontinuous on the lagging strand. DNA replication is carried out by a complex system of enzymes. Some regions of DNA do not code for proteins but have other important functions. Transcription and gene expression (HL ONLY) 7.2 Transcription occurs in a 5’ to 3’ direction. Nucleosomes help to regulate transcription in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells modify mRNA after transcription. Splicing of mRNA increases the number of different proteins an organism can produce. Gene expression is regulated by proteins that bind to specific base sequences in DNA. The environment of a cell and of an organism has an impact on gene expression. Translation (HL ONLY) 7.3 Initiation of translation involves assembly of the components that carry out the process. Synthesis of the polypeptide involves a repeated cycle of events. Disassembly of the components follows termination of translation. Free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use primarily within the cell. Bound ribosomes synthesize proteins primarily for secretion or for use in lysosomes. Translation can occur immediately after transcription in prokaryotes due to the absence of a nuclear membrane. The sequence and number of amino acids in the polypeptide is the primary structure. The secondary structure is the formation of alpha helices and beta pleated sheets stabilized by hydrogen bonding. The tertiary structure is the further folding of the polypeptide stabilized by interactions between R groups. The quaternary structure exists in proteins with more than one polypeptide chain. Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic 8: Metabolism, Cell Respiration, and Photosynthesis- 14 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Metabolism (HL ONLY) 8.1 Metabolic pathways consist of chains and cycles of enzyme-catalysed reactions. Enzymes lower the activation energy of the chemical reactions that they catalyse. Enzyme inhibitors can be competitive or non-competitive. Metabolic pathways can be controlled by end-product inhibition. Cell respiration (HL ONLY) 8.2 Cell respiration involves the oxidation and reduction of electron carriers. Phosphorylation of molecules makes them less stable. In glycolysis, glucose is converted to pyruvate in the cytoplasm. Glycolysis gives a small net gain of ATP without the use of oxygen. In aerobic cell respiration pyruvate is decarboxylated and oxidized, and converted into acetyl compound and attached to coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A in the link reaction. In the Krebs cycle, the oxidation of acetyl groups is coupled to the reduction of hydrogen carriers, liberating carbon dioxide. Energy released by oxidation reactions is carried to the cristae of the mitochondria by reduced NAD and FAD. Transfer of electrons between carriers in the electron transport chain in the membrane of the cristae is coupled to proton pumping. In chemiosmosis protons diffuse through ATP synthase to generate ATP. Oxygen is needed to bind with the free protons to maintain the hydrogen gradient, resulting in the formation of water. The structure of the mitochondrion is adapted to the function it performs. Photosynthesis (HL ONLY) 8.3 Light-dependent reactions take place in the intermembrane space of the thylakoids. Light-independent reactions take place in the stroma. Reduced NADP and ATP are produced in the light-dependent reactions. Absorption of light by photosystems generates excited electrons. Photolysis of water generates electrons for use in the light-dependent reactions. Transfer of excited electrons occurs between carriers in thylakoid membranes. Excited electrons from Photosystem II are used to contribute to generate a proton gradient. ATP synthase in thylakoids generates ATP using the proton gradient. Excited electrons from Photosystem I are used to reduce NADP. In the light-independent reactions a carboxylase catalyses the carboxylation of ribulose bisphosphate. Glycerate 3-phosphate is reduced to triose phosphate using reduced NADP and ATP. Triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP and produce carbohydrates. Ribulose bisphosphate is reformed using ATP. The structure of the chloroplast is adapted to its function in photosynthesis. Topic 9: Plant Biology- 13 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Transport in the xylem of plants (HL ONLY) 9.1 Transpiration is the inevitable consequence of gas exchange in the leaf. Plants transport water from the roots to the leaves to replace losses from transpiration. The cohesive property of water and the structure of the xylem vessels allow transport under tension. The adhesive property of water and evaporation generate tension forces in leaf cell walls. Active uptake of mineral ions in the roots causes absorption of water by osmosis. Transport in the phloem of plants (HL ONLY) 9.2 Plants transport organic compounds from sources to sinks. Incompressibility of water allows transport along hydrostatic pressure gradients. Active transport is used to load organic compounds into phloem sieve tubes at the source. High concentrations of solutes in the phloem at the source lead to water uptake by osmosis. Raised hydrostatic pressure causes the contents of the phloem to flow towards sinks. Growth in plants (HL ONLY) 9.3 Undifferentiated cells in the meristems of plants allow indeterminate growth. Mitosis and cell division in the shoot apex provide cells needed for extension of the stem and development of leaves. Plant hormones control growth in the shoot apex. Plant shoots respond to the environment by tropisms. Auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration gradients of auxin in plant tissue. Auxin influences cell growth rates by changing the pattern of gene expression. Reproduction in plants (HL ONLY) 9.4 Flowering involves a change in gene expression in the shoot apex. The switch to flowering is a response to the length of light and dark periods in many plants. Success in plant reproduction depends on pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal. Most flowering plants use mutualistic relationships with pollinators in sexual reproduction. Topic #10: Genetics and Evolution- 8 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Meiosis (HL ONLY) 10.1 Chromosomes replicate in interphase before meiosis. Crossing over is the exchange of DNA material between non-sister homologous chromatids. Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles on the chromosomes of the haploid cells. Chiasmata formation between non-sister chromatids can result in an exchange of alleles. Homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis I. Sister chromatids separate in meiosis II. Independent assortment of genes is due to the random orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I. Inheritance (HL ONLY) 10.2 Gene loci are said to be linked if on the same chromosome. Unlinked genes segregate independently as a result of meiosis. Variation can be discrete or continuous. The phenotypes of polygenic characteristics tend to show continuous variation. Chi-squared tests are used to determine whether the difference between an observed and expected frequency distribution is statistically significant. Gene pools and speciation (HL ONLY) 10.3 A gene pool consists of all the genes and their different alleles, present in an interbreeding population. Evolution requires that allele frequencies change with time in populations. Reproductive isolation of populations can be temporal, behavioural or geographic. Speciation due to divergence of isolated populations can be gradual. Speciation can occur abruptly. Topic 11: Animal Physiology- 16 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Antibody production and vaccination (HL ONLY) 11.1 Every organism has unique molecules on the surface of its cells. Pathogens can be species-specific although others can cross species barriers. B lymphocytes are activated by T lymphocytes in mammals. Activated B cells multiply to form clones of plasma cells and memory cells. Plasma cells secrete antibodies. Antibodies aid the destruction of pathogens. White cells release histamine in response to allergens. Histamines cause allergic symptoms. Immunity depends upon the persistence of memory cells. Vaccines contain antigens that trigger immunity but do not cause the disease. Fusion of a tumour cell with an antibody-producing plasma cell creates a hybridoma cell. Monoclonal antibodies are produced by hybridoma cells. Movement (HL ONLY) 11.2 Bones and exoskeletons provide anchorage for muscles and act as levers. Synovial joints allow certain movements but not others. Movement of the body requires muscles to work in antagonistic pairs. Skeletal muscle fibres are multinucleate and contain specialized endoplasmic reticulum. Muscle fibres contain many myofibrils. Each myofibril is made up of contractile sarcomeres. The contraction of the skeletal muscle is achieved by the sliding of actin and myosin filaments. ATP hydrolysis and cross bridge formation are necessary for the filaments to slide. Calcium ions and the proteins tropomyosin and troponin control muscle contractions. The kidney and osmoregulation (HL ONLY) 11.3 Animals are either osmoregulators or osmoconformers. The Malpighian tubule system in insects and the kidney carry out osmoregulation and removal of nitrogenous wastes. The composition of blood in the renal artery is different from that in the renal vein. The ultrastructure of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule facilitate ultrafiltration. The proximal convoluted tubule selectively reabsorbs useful substances by active transport. The loop of Henle maintains hypertonic conditions in the medulla. ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct. The length of the loop of Henle is positively correlated with the need for water conservation in animals. The type of nitrogenous waste in animals is correlated with evolutionary history and habitat. Sexual reproduction (HL ONLY) 11.4 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation. Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm. Fertilization in animals can be internal or external. Fertilization involves mechanisms that prevent polyspermy. Implantation of the blastocyst in the endometrium is essential for the continuation of pregnancy. HCG stimulates the ovary to secrete progesterone during early pregnancy. The placenta facilitates the exchange of materials between the mother and fetus. Estrogen and progesterone are secreted by the placenta once it has formed. Birth is mediated by positive feedback involving estrogen and oxytocin. Options As a part of the IB Biology class, you'll cover one additional subject from the options below. (Typically you don’t choose, but rather your teacher does.) Whichever option you or your teacher chooses, you'll cover three or four topics (15 hours total) for SL and an additional two or three topics (25 hours total) for HL. Option A: Neurobiology and Behaviour- 15 Hours for SL and 25 hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Neural development A.1 The neural tube of embryonic chordates is formed by infolding of ectoderm followed by elongation of the tube. Neurons are initially produced by differentiation in the neural tube. Immature neurons migrate to a final location. An axon grows from each immature neuron in response to chemical stimuli. Some axons extend beyond the neural tube to reach other parts of the body. A developing neuron forms multiple synapses. Synapses that are not used do not persist. Neural pruning involves the loss of unused neurons. The plasticity of the nervous system allows it to change with experience. The human brain A.2 The anterior part of the neural tube expands to form the brain. Different parts of the brain have specific roles. The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary processes in the body using centres located mainly in the brain stem. The cerebral cortex forms a larger proportion of the brain and is more highly developed in humans than other animals. The human cerebral cortex has become enlarged principally by an increase in total area with extensive folding to accommodate it within the cranium. The cerebral hemispheres are responsible for higher order functions. The left cerebral hemisphere receives sensory input from sensory receptors in the right side of the body and the right side of the visual field in both eyes and vice versa for the right hemisphere. The left cerebral hemisphere controls muscle contraction in the right side of the body and vice versa for the right hemisphere. Brain metabolism requires large energy inputs. Perception of stimuli A.3 Receptors detect changes in the environment. Rods and cones are photoreceptors located in the retina. Rods and cones differ in their sensitivities to light intensities and wavelengths. Bipolar cells send the impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells. Ganglion cells send messages to the brain via the optic nerve. The information from the right field of vision from both eyes is sent to the left part of the visual cortex and vice versa. Structures in the middle ear transmit and amplify sound. Sensory hairs of the cochlea detect sounds of specific wavelengths. Impulses caused by sound perception are transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve. Hair cells in the semicircular canals detect movement of the head. Additional HL Neurobiology and Behaviour Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Innate and learned behaviour (HL ONLY) A.4 Innate behaviour is inherited from parents and so develops independently of the environment. Autonomic and involuntary responses are referred to as reflexes. Reflex arcs comprise the neurons that mediate reflexes. Reflex conditioning involves forming new associations. Learned behaviour develops as a result of experience. Imprinting is learning occurring at a particular life stage and is independent of the consequences of behaviour. Operant conditioning is a form of learning that consists of trial and error experiences. Learning is the acquisition of skill or knowledge. Memory is the process of encoding, storing and accessing information. Neuropharmacology (HL ONLY) A.5 Some neurotransmitters excite nerve impulses in postsynaptic neurons and others inhibit them. Nerve impulses are initiated or inhibited in post-synaptic neurons as a result of summation of all excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters received from presynaptic neurones. Many different slow-acting neurotransmitters modulate fast synaptic transmission in the brain. Memory and learning involve changes in neurones caused by slow-acting neurotransmitters. Psychoactive drugs affect the brain by either increasing or decreasing postsynaptic transmission. Anesthetics act by interfering with neural transmission between areas of sensory perception and the CNS. Stimulant drugs mimic the stimulation provided by the sympathetic nervous system. Addiction can be affected by genetic predisposition, social environment and dopamine secretion. Ethology (HL ONLY) A.6 Ethology is the study of animal behaviour in natural conditions. Natural selection can change the frequency of observed animal behaviour. Behaviour that increases the chances of survival and reproduction will become more prevalent in a population. Learned behaviour can spread through a population or be lost from it more rapidly than innate behaviour. Option B: Biotechnology and Bioinformatics- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Microbiology: organisms in industry B.1 Microorganisms are metabolically diverse. Microorganisms are used in industry because they are small and have a fast growth rate. Pathway engineering optimizes genetic and regulatory processes within microorganisms. Pathway engineering is used industrially to produce metabolites of interest. Fermenters allow large-scale production of metabolites by microorganisms. Fermentation is carried out by batch or continuous culture. Microorganisms in fermenters become limited by their own waste products. Probes are used to monitor conditions within fermenters. Conditions are maintained at optimal levels for the growth of the microorganisms being cultured. Biotechnology in agriculture B.2 Transgenic organisms produce proteins that were not previously part of their species’ proteome. Genetic modification can be used to overcome environmental resistance to increase crop yields. Genetically modified crop plants can be used to produce novel products. Bioinformatics plays a role in identifying target genes. The target gene is linked to other sequences that control its expression. An open reading frame is a significant length of DNA from a start codon to a stop codon. Marker genes are used to indicate successful uptake. Recombinant DNA must be inserted into the plant cell and taken up by its chromosome or chloroplast DNA. Recombinant DNA can be introduced into whole plants, leaf discs or protoplasts. Recombinant DNA can be introduced by direct physical and chemical methods or indirectly by vectors. Environmental protection B.3 Responses to pollution incidents can involve bioremediation combined with physical and chemical procedures. Microorganisms are used in bioremediation. Some pollutants are metabolized by microorganisms. Cooperative aggregates of microorganisms can form biofilms. Biofilms possess emergent properties. Microorganisms growing in a biofilm are highly resistant to antimicrobial agents. Microorganisms in biofilms cooperate through quorum sensing. Bacteriophages are used in the disinfection of water systems. Additional HL Biotechnology and Bioinfomatics Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Medicine (HL ONLY) B.4 Infection by a pathogen can be detected by the presence of its genetic material or by its antigens. Predisposition to a genetic disease can be detected through the presence of markers. DNA microarrays can be used to test for genetic predisposition or to diagnose the disease. Metabolites that indicate disease can be detected in blood and urine. Tracking experiments are used to gain information about the localization and interaction of a desired protein. Biopharming uses genetically modified animals and plants to produce proteins for therapeutic use. Viral vectors can be used in gene therapy. Bioinformatics (HL ONLY) B.5 Databases allow scientists easy access to information. The body of data stored in databases is increasing exponentially. BLAST searches can identify similar sequences in different organisms. Gene function can be studied using model organisms with similar sequences. Sequence alignment software allows comparison of sequences from different organisms. BLASTn allows nucleotide sequence alignment while BLASTp allows protein alignment. Databases can be searched to compare newly identified sequences with sequences of known function in other organisms. Multiple sequence alignment is used in the study of phylogenetics. EST is an expressed sequence tag that can be used to identify potential genes. Option C: Ecology and Conservation- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Species and communities C.1 The distribution of species is affected by limiting factors. Community structure can be strongly affected by keystone species. Each species plays a unique role within a community because of the unique combination of its spatial habitat and interactions with other species. Interactions between species in a community can be classified according to their effect. Two species cannot survive indefinitely in the same habitat if their niches are identical. Communities and ecosystems C.2 Most species occupy different trophic levels in multiple food chains. A food web shows all the possible food chains in a community. The percentage of ingested energy converted to biomass is dependent on the respiration rate. The type of stable ecosystem that will emerge in an area is predictable based on climate. In closed ecosystems energy but not matter is exchanged with the surroundings. Disturbance influences the structure and rate of change within ecosystems. Impacts of humans on ecosystems C.3 Introduced alien species can escape into local ecosystems and become invasive. Competitive exclusion and the absence of predators can lead to reduction in the numbers of endemic species when alien species become invasive. Pollutants become concentrated in the tissues of organisms at higher trophic levels by biomagnification. Macroplastic and microplastic debris has accumulated in marine environments. Conservation of biodiversity C.4 An indicator species is an organism used to assess a specific environmental condition. Relative numbers of indicator species can be used to calculate the value of a biotic index. In situ conservation may require active management of nature reserves or national parks. Ex situ conservation is the preservation of species outside their natural habitats. Biogeographic factors affect species diversity. Richness and evenness are components of biodiversity. Additional HL Ecology and Conservation Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Population ecology (HL ONLY) C.5 Sampling techniques are used to estimate population size. The exponential growth pattern occurs in an ideal, unlimited environment. Population growth slows as a population reaches the carrying capacity of the environment. The phases shown in the sigmoid curve can be explained by relative rates of natality, mortality, immigration and emigration. Limiting factors can be top down or bottom up. Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles (HL ONLY) C.6 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia. Rhizobium associates with roots in a mutualistic relationship. In the absence of oxygen denitrifying bacteria reduce nitrate in the soil. Phosphorus can be added to the phosphorus cycle by application of fertilizer or removed by the harvesting of agricultural crops. The rate of turnover in the phosphorus cycle is much lower than the nitrogen cycle. Availability of phosphate may become limiting to agriculture in the future. Leaching of mineral nutrients from agricultural land into rivers causes eutrophication and leads to increased biochemical oxygen demand. Option D: Human Physiology- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Human nutrition D.1 Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body, therefore they have to be included in the diet. Dietary minerals are essential chemical elements. Vitamins are chemically diverse carbon compounds that cannot be synthesized by the body. Some fatty acids and some amino acids are essential. Lack of essential amino acids affects the production of proteins. Malnutrition may be caused by a deficiency, imbalance or excess of nutrients in the diet. Appetite is controlled by a centre in the hypothalamus. Overweight individuals are more likely to suffer hypertension and type II diabetes. Starvation can lead to breakdown of body tissue. Digestion D.2 Nervous and hormonal mechanisms control the secretion of digestive juices. Exocrine glands secrete to the surface of the body or the lumen of the gut. The volume and content of gastric secretions are controlled by nervous and hormonal mechanisms. Acid conditions in the stomach favour some hydrolysis reactions and help to control pathogens in ingested food. The structure of cells of the epithelium of the villi is adapted to the absorption of food. The rate of transit of materials through the large intestine is positively correlated with their fibre content. Materials not absorbed are egested. Functions of the liver D.3 The liver removes toxins from the blood and detoxifies them. Components of red blood cells are recycled by the liver. The breakdown of erythrocytes starts with phagocytosis of red blood cells by Kupffer cells. Iron is carried to the bone marrow to produce hemoglobin in new red blood cells. Surplus cholesterol is converted to bile salts. Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in hepatocytes produce plasma proteins. The liver intercepts blood from the gut to regulate nutrient levels. Some nutrients in excess can be stored in the liver. The heart D.4 Structure of cardiac muscle cells allows propagation of stimuli through the heart wall. Signals from the sinoatrial node that cause contraction cannot pass directly from atria to ventricles. There is a delay between the arrival and passing on of a stimulus at the atrioventricular node. This delay allows time for atrial systole before the atrioventricular valves close. Conducting fibres ensure coordinated contraction of the entire ventricle wall. Normal heart sounds are caused by the atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves closing causing changes in blood flow. Additional HL Human Physiology Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Hormones and metabolism (HL ONLY) D.5 Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. Steroid hormones bind to receptor proteins in the cytoplasm of the target cell to form a receptor–hormone complex. The receptor–hormone complex promotes the transcription of specific genes. Peptide hormones bind to receptors in the plasma membrane of the target cell. Binding of hormones to membrane receptors activates a cascade mediated by a second messenger inside the cell. The hypothalamus controls hormone secretion by the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland. Hormones secreted by the pituitary control growth, developmental changes, reproduction and homeostasis. Transport of respiratory gases (HL ONLY) D.6 Oxygen dissociation curves show the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. Carbon dioxide is carried in solution and bound to hemoglobin in the blood. Carbon dioxide is transformed in red blood cells into hydrogencarbonate ions. The Bohr shift explains the increased release of oxygen by hemoglobin in respiring tissues. Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in blood pH. The rate of ventilation is controlled by the respiratory control centre in the medulla oblongata. During exercise the rate of ventilation changes in response to the amount of CO2 in the blood. Fetal hemoglobin is different from adult hemoglobin allowing the transfer of oxygen in the placenta onto the fetal hemoglobin. Practical Scheme of Work You also need to complete experiments and experimental reports as a part of any IB Science course. For SL, there is 40 hours of material. For HL, there is 60 hours of material. Here are the activities: Practical activities: 20 hours for SL and 40 hours for HL Lab work in class counts towards these hours Individual investigation (internal assessment-IA): 10 hours for SL and HL A lab project along with a report that counts as 20% of your IB exam scores (written exam counts for the other 80%) Group 4 Project:10 hours for SL and HL Students are separated into groups and must conduct an experiment and write a report. Experiments may not be this cool. What’s Next? Thinking about taking AP Biology instead? Learn what's covered in a AP Bio here. Looking for more in-depth explorations of the topics mentioned on this syllabus? Read our subject-specific articles on topics varying from the photosynthesis equation to homologous and analogous structures to cell biology (including cell theory, enzymes, and how the cell membrane and endoplasmic reticulum work). Are you hoping to squeeze in some extra IB classes? Learn about the IB courses offered online. Studying for the SAT? Check out our complete guide to the SAT. Taking the SAT in the next month? Check out our guide to cramming. Not sure where you want to go to college? Check out our guide to finding your target school. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now: